mirror of
https://git.savannah.gnu.org/git/parallel.git
synced 2024-11-23 06:27:55 +00:00
1702 lines
52 KiB
Perl
1702 lines
52 KiB
Perl
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package overload;
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our $VERSION = '1.13';
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sub nil {}
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sub OVERLOAD {
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$package = shift;
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my %arg = @_;
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my ($sub, $fb);
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$ {$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Register with magic by touching.
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$fb = ${$package . "::()"}; # preserve old fallback value RT#68196
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*{$package . "::()"} = \&nil; # Make it findable via fetchmethod.
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for (keys %arg) {
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if ($_ eq 'fallback') {
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$fb = $arg{$_};
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} else {
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$sub = $arg{$_};
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if (not ref $sub and $sub !~ /::/) {
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$ {$package . "::(" . $_} = $sub;
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$sub = \&nil;
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}
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#print STDERR "Setting `$ {'package'}::\cO$_' to \\&`$sub'.\n";
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*{$package . "::(" . $_} = \&{ $sub };
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}
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}
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${$package . "::()"} = $fb; # Make it findable too (fallback only).
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}
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sub import {
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$package = (caller())[0];
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# *{$package . "::OVERLOAD"} = \&OVERLOAD;
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shift;
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$package->overload::OVERLOAD(@_);
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}
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sub unimport {
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$package = (caller())[0];
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${$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Upgrade the table
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shift;
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for (@_) {
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if ($_ eq 'fallback') {
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undef $ {$package . "::()"};
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} else {
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delete $ {$package . "::"}{"(" . $_};
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}
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}
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}
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sub Overloaded {
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my $package = shift;
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$package = ref $package if ref $package;
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$package->can('()');
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}
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sub ov_method {
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my $globref = shift;
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return undef unless $globref;
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my $sub = \&{*$globref};
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require Scalar::Util;
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return $sub
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if Scalar::Util::refaddr($sub) != Scalar::Util::refaddr(\&nil);
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return shift->can($ {*$globref});
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}
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sub OverloadedStringify {
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my $package = shift;
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$package = ref $package if ref $package;
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#$package->can('(""')
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ov_method mycan($package, '(""'), $package
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or ov_method mycan($package, '(0+'), $package
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or ov_method mycan($package, '(bool'), $package
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or ov_method mycan($package, '(nomethod'), $package;
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}
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sub Method {
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my $package = shift;
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if(ref $package) {
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local $@;
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local $!;
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require Scalar::Util;
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$package = Scalar::Util::blessed($package);
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return undef if !defined $package;
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}
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#my $meth = $package->can('(' . shift);
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ov_method mycan($package, '(' . shift), $package;
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#return $meth if $meth ne \&nil;
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#return $ {*{$meth}};
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}
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sub AddrRef {
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my $package = ref $_[0];
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return "$_[0]" unless $package;
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local $@;
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local $!;
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require Scalar::Util;
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my $class = Scalar::Util::blessed($_[0]);
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my $class_prefix = defined($class) ? "$class=" : "";
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my $type = Scalar::Util::reftype($_[0]);
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my $addr = Scalar::Util::refaddr($_[0]);
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return sprintf("%s%s(0x%x)", $class_prefix, $type, $addr);
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}
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*StrVal = *AddrRef;
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sub mycan { # Real can would leave stubs.
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my ($package, $meth) = @_;
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local $@;
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local $!;
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require mro;
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my $mro = mro::get_linear_isa($package);
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foreach my $p (@$mro) {
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my $fqmeth = $p . q{::} . $meth;
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return \*{$fqmeth} if defined &{$fqmeth};
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}
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return undef;
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}
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%constants = (
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'integer' => 0x1000, # HINT_NEW_INTEGER
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'float' => 0x2000, # HINT_NEW_FLOAT
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'binary' => 0x4000, # HINT_NEW_BINARY
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'q' => 0x8000, # HINT_NEW_STRING
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'qr' => 0x10000, # HINT_NEW_RE
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);
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%ops = ( with_assign => "+ - * / % ** << >> x .",
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assign => "+= -= *= /= %= **= <<= >>= x= .=",
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num_comparison => "< <= > >= == !=",
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'3way_comparison'=> "<=> cmp",
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str_comparison => "lt le gt ge eq ne",
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binary => '& &= | |= ^ ^=',
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unary => "neg ! ~",
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mutators => '++ --',
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func => "atan2 cos sin exp abs log sqrt int",
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conversion => 'bool "" 0+ qr',
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iterators => '<>',
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filetest => "-X",
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dereferencing => '${} @{} %{} &{} *{}',
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matching => '~~',
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special => 'nomethod fallback =');
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use warnings::register;
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sub constant {
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# Arguments: what, sub
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while (@_) {
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if (@_ == 1) {
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warnings::warnif ("Odd number of arguments for overload::constant");
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last;
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}
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elsif (!exists $constants {$_ [0]}) {
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warnings::warnif ("`$_[0]' is not an overloadable type");
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}
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elsif (!ref $_ [1] || "$_[1]" !~ /(^|=)CODE\(0x[0-9a-f]+\)$/) {
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# Can't use C<ref $_[1] eq "CODE"> above as code references can be
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# blessed, and C<ref> would return the package the ref is blessed into.
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if (warnings::enabled) {
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$_ [1] = "undef" unless defined $_ [1];
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warnings::warn ("`$_[1]' is not a code reference");
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}
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}
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else {
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$^H{$_[0]} = $_[1];
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$^H |= $constants{$_[0]};
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}
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shift, shift;
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}
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}
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sub remove_constant {
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# Arguments: what, sub
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while (@_) {
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delete $^H{$_[0]};
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$^H &= ~ $constants{$_[0]};
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shift, shift;
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}
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}
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1;
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__END__
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=head1 NAME
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overload - Package for overloading Perl operations
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=head1 SYNOPSIS
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package SomeThing;
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use overload
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'+' => \&myadd,
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'-' => \&mysub;
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# etc
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...
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package main;
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$a = SomeThing->new( 57 );
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$b = 5 + $a;
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...
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if (overload::Overloaded $b) {...}
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...
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$strval = overload::StrVal $b;
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=head1 DESCRIPTION
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This pragma allows overloading of Perl's operators for a class.
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To overload built-in functions, see L<perlsub/Overriding Built-in Functions> instead.
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=head2 Fundamentals
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=head3 Declaration
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Arguments of the C<use overload> directive are (key, value) pairs.
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For the full set of legal keys, see L<Overloadable Operations> below.
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Operator implementations (the values) can be subroutines,
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references to subroutines, or anonymous subroutines
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- in other words, anything legal inside a C<&{ ... }> call.
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Values specified as strings are interpreted as method names.
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Thus
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package Number;
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use overload
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"-" => "minus",
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"*=" => \&muas,
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'""' => sub { ...; };
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declares that subtraction is to be implemented by method C<minus()>
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in the class C<Number> (or one of its base classes),
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and that the function C<Number::muas()> is to be used for the
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assignment form of multiplication, C<*=>.
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It also defines an anonymous subroutine to implement stringification:
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this is called whenever an object blessed into the package C<Number>
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is used in a string context (this subroutine might, for example,
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return the number as a Roman numeral).
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=head3 Calling Conventions and Magic Autogeneration
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The following sample implementation of C<minus()> (which assumes
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that C<Number> objects are simply blessed references to scalars)
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illustrates the calling conventions:
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package Number;
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sub minus {
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my ($self, $other, $swap) = @_;
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my $result = $$self - $other; # *
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$result = -$result if $swap;
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ref $result ? $result : bless \$result;
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}
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# * may recurse once - see table below
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Three arguments are passed to all subroutines specified in the
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C<use overload> directive (with one exception - see L</nomethod>).
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The first of these is the operand providing the overloaded
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operator implementation -
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in this case, the object whose C<minus()> method is being called.
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The second argument is the other operand, or C<undef> in the
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case of a unary operator.
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The third argument is set to TRUE if (and only if) the two
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operands have been swapped. Perl may do this to ensure that the
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first argument (C<$self>) is an object implementing the overloaded
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operation, in line with general object calling conventions.
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For example, if C<$x> and C<$y> are C<Number>s:
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operation | generates a call to
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============|======================
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$x - $y | minus($x, $y, '')
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$x - 7 | minus($x, 7, '')
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7 - $x | minus($x, 7, 1)
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Perl may also use C<minus()> to implement other operators which
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have not been specified in the C<use overload> directive,
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according to the rules for L<Magic Autogeneration> described later.
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For example, the C<use overload> above declared no subroutine
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for any of the operators C<-->, C<neg> (the overload key for
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unary minus), or C<-=>. Thus
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operation | generates a call to
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============|======================
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-$x | minus($x, 0, 1)
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$x-- | minus($x, 1, undef)
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$x -= 3 | minus($x, 3, undef)
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Note the C<undef>s:
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where autogeneration results in the method for a standard
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operator which does not change either of its operands, such
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as C<->, being used to implement an operator which changes
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the operand ("mutators": here, C<--> and C<-=>),
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Perl passes undef as the third argument.
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This still evaluates as FALSE, consistent with the fact that
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the operands have not been swapped, but gives the subroutine
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a chance to alter its behaviour in these cases.
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In all the above examples, C<minus()> is required
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only to return the result of the subtraction:
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Perl takes care of the assignment to $x.
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In fact, such methods should I<not> modify their operands,
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even if C<undef> is passed as the third argument
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(see L<Overloadable Operations>).
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The same is not true of implementations of C<++> and C<-->:
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these are expected to modify their operand.
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An appropriate implementation of C<--> might look like
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use overload '--' => "decr",
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# ...
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sub decr { --${$_[0]}; }
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=head3 Mathemagic, Mutators, and Copy Constructors
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The term 'mathemagic' describes the overloaded implementation
|
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of mathematical operators.
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Mathemagical operations raise an issue.
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Consider the code:
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$a = $b;
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--$a;
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||
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|
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If C<$a> and C<$b> are scalars then after these statements
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$a == $b - 1
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An object, however, is a reference to blessed data, so if
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C<$a> and C<$b> are objects then the assignment C<$a = $b>
|
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copies only the reference, leaving C<$a> and C<$b> referring
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to the same object data.
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One might therefore expect the operation C<--$a> to decrement
|
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C<$b> as well as C<$a>.
|
||
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However, this would not be consistent with how we expect the
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mathematical operators to work.
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Perl resolves this dilemma by transparently calling a copy
|
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constructor before calling a method defined to implement
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a mutator (C<-->, C<+=>, and so on.).
|
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In the above example, when Perl reaches the decrement
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|
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statement, it makes a copy of the object data in C<$a> and
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assigns to C<$a> a reference to the copied data.
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Only then does it call C<decr()>, which alters the copied
|
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data, leaving C<$b> unchanged.
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Thus the object metaphor is preserved as far as possible,
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while mathemagical operations still work according to the
|
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arithmetic metaphor.
|
||
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|
||
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Note: the preceding paragraph describes what happens when
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Perl autogenerates the copy constructor for an object based
|
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on a scalar.
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For other cases, see L<Copy Constructor>.
|
||
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|
||
|
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=head2 Overloadable Operations
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The complete list of keys that can be specified in the C<use overload>
|
||
|
|
directive are given, separated by spaces, in the values of the
|
||
|
|
hash C<%overload::ops>:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
with_assign => '+ - * / % ** << >> x .',
|
||
|
|
assign => '+= -= *= /= %= **= <<= >>= x= .=',
|
||
|
|
num_comparison => '< <= > >= == !=',
|
||
|
|
'3way_comparison'=> '<=> cmp',
|
||
|
|
str_comparison => 'lt le gt ge eq ne',
|
||
|
|
binary => '& &= | |= ^ ^=',
|
||
|
|
unary => 'neg ! ~',
|
||
|
|
mutators => '++ --',
|
||
|
|
func => 'atan2 cos sin exp abs log sqrt int',
|
||
|
|
conversion => 'bool "" 0+ qr',
|
||
|
|
iterators => '<>',
|
||
|
|
filetest => '-X',
|
||
|
|
dereferencing => '${} @{} %{} &{} *{}',
|
||
|
|
matching => '~~',
|
||
|
|
special => 'nomethod fallback ='
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Most of the overloadable operators map one-to-one to these keys.
|
||
|
|
Exceptions, including additional overloadable operations not
|
||
|
|
apparent from this hash, are included in the notes which follow.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over 5
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * C<not>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The operator C<not> is not a valid key for C<use overload>.
|
||
|
|
However, if the operator C<!> is overloaded then the same
|
||
|
|
implementation will be used for C<not>
|
||
|
|
(since the two operators differ only in precedence).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * C<neg>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The key C<neg> is used for unary minus to disambiguate it from
|
||
|
|
binary C<->.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * C<++>, C<-->
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Assuming they are to behave analogously to Perl's C<++> and C<-->,
|
||
|
|
overloaded implementations of these operators are required to
|
||
|
|
mutate their operands.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
No distinction is made between prefix and postfix forms of the
|
||
|
|
increment and decrement operators: these differ only in the
|
||
|
|
point at which Perl calls the associated subroutine when
|
||
|
|
evaluating an expression.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Assignments>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
+= -= *= /= %= **= <<= >>= x= .=
|
||
|
|
&= |= ^=
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Simple assignment is not overloadable (the C<'='> key is used
|
||
|
|
for the L<Copy Constructor>).
|
||
|
|
Perl does have a way to make assignments to an object do whatever
|
||
|
|
you want, but this involves using tie(), not overload -
|
||
|
|
see L<perlfunc/tie> and the L</COOKBOOK> examples below.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The subroutine for the assignment variant of an operator is
|
||
|
|
required only to return the result of the operation.
|
||
|
|
It is permitted to change the value of its operand
|
||
|
|
(this is safe because Perl calls the copy constructor first),
|
||
|
|
but this is optional since Perl assigns the returned value to
|
||
|
|
the left-hand operand anyway.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
An object that overloads an assignment operator does so only in
|
||
|
|
respect of assignments to that object.
|
||
|
|
In other words, Perl never calls the corresponding methods with
|
||
|
|
the third argument (the "swap" argument) set to TRUE.
|
||
|
|
For example, the operation
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a *= $b
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
cannot lead to C<$b>'s implementation of C<*=> being called,
|
||
|
|
even if C<$a> is a scalar.
|
||
|
|
(It can, however, generate a call to C<$b>'s method for C<*>).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Non-mutators with a mutator variant>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
+ - * / % ** << >> x .
|
||
|
|
& | ^
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
As described L<above|"Calling Conventions and Magic Autogeneration">,
|
||
|
|
Perl may call methods for operators like C<+> and C<&> in the course
|
||
|
|
of implementing missing operations like C<++>, C<+=>, and C<&=>.
|
||
|
|
While these methods may detect this usage by testing the definedness
|
||
|
|
of the third argument, they should in all cases avoid changing their
|
||
|
|
operands.
|
||
|
|
This is because Perl does not call the copy constructor before
|
||
|
|
invoking these methods.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * C<int>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Traditionally, the Perl function C<int> rounds to 0
|
||
|
|
(see L<perlfunc/int>), and so for floating-point-like types one
|
||
|
|
should follow the same semantic.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<String, numeric, boolean, and regexp conversions>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
"" 0+ bool
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
These conversions are invoked according to context as necessary.
|
||
|
|
For example, the subroutine for C<'""'> (stringify) may be used
|
||
|
|
where the overloaded object is passed as an argument to C<print>,
|
||
|
|
and that for C<'bool'> where it is tested in the condition of a flow
|
||
|
|
control statement (like C<while>) or the ternary C<?:> operation.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Of course, in contexts like, for example, C<$obj + 1>, Perl will
|
||
|
|
invoke C<$obj>'s implementation of C<+> rather than (in this
|
||
|
|
example) converting C<$obj> to a number using the numify method
|
||
|
|
C<'0+'> (an exception to this is when no method has been provided
|
||
|
|
for C<'+'> and L</fallback> is set to TRUE).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The subroutines for C<'""'>, C<'0+'>, and C<'bool'> can return
|
||
|
|
any arbitrary Perl value.
|
||
|
|
If the corresponding operation for this value is overloaded too,
|
||
|
|
the operation will be called again with this value.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
As a special case if the overload returns the object itself then it will
|
||
|
|
be used directly. An overloaded conversion returning the object is
|
||
|
|
probably a bug, because you're likely to get something that looks like
|
||
|
|
C<YourPackage=HASH(0x8172b34)>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
qr
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The subroutine for C<'qr'> is used wherever the object is
|
||
|
|
interpolated into or used as a regexp, including when it
|
||
|
|
appears on the RHS of a C<=~> or C<!~> operator.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
C<qr> must return a compiled regexp, or a ref to a compiled regexp
|
||
|
|
(such as C<qr//> returns), and any further overloading on the return
|
||
|
|
value will be ignored.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Iteration>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If C<E<lt>E<gt>> is overloaded then the same implementation is used
|
||
|
|
for both the I<read-filehandle> syntax C<E<lt>$varE<gt>> and
|
||
|
|
I<globbing> syntax C<E<lt>${var}E<gt>>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
B<BUGS> Even in list context, the iterator is currently called only
|
||
|
|
once and with scalar context.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<File tests>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The key C<'-X'> is used to specify a subroutine to handle all the
|
||
|
|
filetest operators (C<-f>, C<-x>, and so on: see L<perlfunc/-X> for
|
||
|
|
the full list);
|
||
|
|
it is not possible to overload any filetest operator individually.
|
||
|
|
To distinguish them, the letter following the '-' is passed as the
|
||
|
|
second argument (that is, in the slot that for binary operators
|
||
|
|
is used to pass the second operand).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Calling an overloaded filetest operator does not affect the stat value
|
||
|
|
associated with the special filehandle C<_>. It still refers to the
|
||
|
|
result of the last C<stat>, C<lstat> or unoverloaded filetest.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
This overload was introduced in Perl 5.12.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Matching>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The key C<"~~"> allows you to override the smart matching logic used by
|
||
|
|
the C<~~> operator and the switch construct (C<given>/C<when>). See
|
||
|
|
L<perlsyn/switch> and L<feature>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Unusually, the overloaded implementation of the smart match operator
|
||
|
|
does not get full control of the smart match behaviour.
|
||
|
|
In particular, in the following code:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package Foo;
|
||
|
|
use overload '~~' => 'match';
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my $obj = Foo->new();
|
||
|
|
$obj ~~ [ 1,2,3 ];
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
the smart match does I<not> invoke the method call like this:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$obj->match([1,2,3],0);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
rather, the smart match distributive rule takes precedence, so $obj is
|
||
|
|
smart matched against each array element in turn until a match is found,
|
||
|
|
so you may see between one and three of these calls instead:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$obj->match(1,0);
|
||
|
|
$obj->match(2,0);
|
||
|
|
$obj->match(3,0);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Consult the match table in L<perlsyn/"Smart matching in detail"> for
|
||
|
|
details of when overloading is invoked.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Dereferencing>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
${} @{} %{} &{} *{}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If these operators are not explicitly overloaded then they
|
||
|
|
work in the normal way, yielding the underlying scalar,
|
||
|
|
array, or whatever stores the object data (or the appropriate
|
||
|
|
error message if the dereference operator doesn't match it).
|
||
|
|
Defining a catch-all C<'nomethod'> (see L<below|/nomethod>)
|
||
|
|
makes no difference to this as the catch-all function will
|
||
|
|
not be called to implement a missing dereference operator.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If a dereference operator is overloaded then it must return a
|
||
|
|
I<reference> of the appropriate type (for example, the
|
||
|
|
subroutine for key C<'${}'> should return a reference to a
|
||
|
|
scalar, not a scalar), or another object which overloads the
|
||
|
|
operator: that is, the subroutine only determines what is
|
||
|
|
dereferenced and the actual dereferencing is left to Perl.
|
||
|
|
As a special case, if the subroutine returns the object itself
|
||
|
|
then it will not be called again - avoiding infinite recursion.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * I<Special>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
nomethod fallback =
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
See L<Special Keys for C<use overload>>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Magic Autogeneration
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If a method for an operation is not found then Perl tries to
|
||
|
|
autogenerate a substitute implementation from the operations
|
||
|
|
that have been defined.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note: the behaviour described in this section can be disabled
|
||
|
|
by setting C<fallback> to FALSE (see L</fallback>).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
In the following tables, numbers indicate priority.
|
||
|
|
For example, the table below states that,
|
||
|
|
if no implementation for C<'!'> has been defined then Perl will
|
||
|
|
implement it using C<'bool'> (that is, by inverting the value
|
||
|
|
returned by the method for C<'bool'>);
|
||
|
|
if boolean conversion is also unimplemented then Perl will
|
||
|
|
use C<'0+'> or, failing that, C<'""'>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
operator | can be autogenerated from
|
||
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
| 0+ "" bool . x
|
||
|
|
=========|==========================
|
||
|
|
0+ | 1 2
|
||
|
|
"" | 1 2
|
||
|
|
bool | 1 2
|
||
|
|
int | 1 2 3
|
||
|
|
! | 2 3 1
|
||
|
|
qr | 2 1 3
|
||
|
|
. | 2 1 3
|
||
|
|
x | 2 1 3
|
||
|
|
.= | 3 2 4 1
|
||
|
|
x= | 3 2 4 1
|
||
|
|
<> | 2 1 3
|
||
|
|
-X | 2 1 3
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note: The iterator (C<'E<lt>E<gt>'>) and file test (C<'-X'>)
|
||
|
|
operators work as normal: if the operand is not a blessed glob or
|
||
|
|
IO reference then it is converted to a string (using the method
|
||
|
|
for C<'""'>, C<'0+'>, or C<'bool'>) to be interpreted as a glob
|
||
|
|
or filename.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
operator | can be autogenerated from
|
||
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
| < <=> neg -= -
|
||
|
|
=========|==========================
|
||
|
|
neg | 1
|
||
|
|
-= | 1
|
||
|
|
-- | 1 2
|
||
|
|
abs | a1 a2 b1 b2 [*]
|
||
|
|
< | 1
|
||
|
|
<= | 1
|
||
|
|
> | 1
|
||
|
|
>= | 1
|
||
|
|
== | 1
|
||
|
|
!= | 1
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
* one from [a1, a2] and one from [b1, b2]
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Just as numeric comparisons can be autogenerated from the method
|
||
|
|
for C<< '<=>' >>, string comparisons can be autogenerated from
|
||
|
|
that for C<'cmp'>:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
operators | can be autogenerated from
|
||
|
|
====================|===========================
|
||
|
|
lt gt le ge eq ne | cmp
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Similarly, autogeneration for keys C<'+='> and C<'++'> is analogous
|
||
|
|
to C<'-='> and C<'--'> above:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
operator | can be autogenerated from
|
||
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
| += +
|
||
|
|
=========|==========================
|
||
|
|
+= | 1
|
||
|
|
++ | 1 2
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
And other assignment variations are analogous to
|
||
|
|
C<'+='> and C<'-='> (and similar to C<'.='> and C<'x='> above):
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
operator || *= /= %= **= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
|
||
|
|
-------------------||--------------------------------
|
||
|
|
autogenerated from || * / % ** << >> & ^ |
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note also that the copy constructor (key C<'='>) may be
|
||
|
|
autogenerated, but only for objects based on scalars.
|
||
|
|
See L<Copy Constructor>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head3 Minimal Set of Overloaded Operations
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Since some operations can be automatically generated from others, there is
|
||
|
|
a minimal set of operations that need to be overloaded in order to have
|
||
|
|
the complete set of overloaded operations at one's disposal.
|
||
|
|
Of course, the autogenerated operations may not do exactly what the user
|
||
|
|
expects. The minimal set is:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
+ - * / % ** << >> x
|
||
|
|
<=> cmp
|
||
|
|
& | ^ ~
|
||
|
|
atan2 cos sin exp log sqrt int
|
||
|
|
"" 0+ bool
|
||
|
|
~~
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Of the conversions, only one of string, boolean or numeric is
|
||
|
|
needed because each can be generated from either of the other two.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Special Keys for C<use overload>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head3 C<nomethod>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The C<'nomethod'> key is used to specify a catch-all function to
|
||
|
|
be called for any operator that is not individually overloaded.
|
||
|
|
The specified function will be passed four parameters.
|
||
|
|
The first three arguments coincide with those that would have been
|
||
|
|
passed to the corresponding method if it had been defined.
|
||
|
|
The fourth argument is the C<use overload> key for that missing
|
||
|
|
method.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
For example, if C<$a> is an object blessed into a package declaring
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload 'nomethod' => 'catch_all', # ...
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
then the operation
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
3 + $a
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
could (unless a method is specifically declared for the key
|
||
|
|
C<'+'>) result in a call
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
catch_all($a, 3, 1, '+')
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
See L<How Perl Chooses an Operator Implementation>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head3 C<fallback>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The value assigned to the key C<'fallback'> tells Perl how hard
|
||
|
|
it should try to find an alternative way to implement a missing
|
||
|
|
operator.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * defined, but FALSE
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload "fallback" => 0, # ... ;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
This disables L<Magic Autogeneration>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * C<undef>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
In the default case where no value is explicitly assigned to
|
||
|
|
C<fallback>, magic autogeneration is enabled.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item * TRUE
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The same as for C<undef>, but if a missing operator cannot be
|
||
|
|
autogenerated then, instead of issuing an error message, Perl
|
||
|
|
is allowed to revert to what it would have done for that
|
||
|
|
operator if there had been no C<use overload> directive.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note: in most cases, particularly the L<Copy Constructor>,
|
||
|
|
this is unlikely to be appropriate behaviour.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
See L<How Perl Chooses an Operator Implementation>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head3 Copy Constructor
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
As mentioned L<above|"Mathemagic, Mutators, and Copy Constructors">,
|
||
|
|
this operation is called when a mutator is applied to a reference
|
||
|
|
that shares its object with some other reference.
|
||
|
|
For example, if C<$b> is mathemagical, and C<'++'> is overloaded
|
||
|
|
with C<'incr'>, and C<'='> is overloaded with C<'clone'>, then the
|
||
|
|
code
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a = $b;
|
||
|
|
# ... (other code which does not modify $a or $b) ...
|
||
|
|
++$b;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
would be executed in a manner equivalent to
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a = $b;
|
||
|
|
# ...
|
||
|
|
$b = $b->clone(undef, "");
|
||
|
|
$b->incr(undef, "");
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The subroutine for C<'='> does not overload the Perl assignment
|
||
|
|
operator: it is used only to allow mutators to work as described
|
||
|
|
here. (See L</Assignments> above.)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
As for other operations, the subroutine implementing '=' is passed
|
||
|
|
three arguments, though the last two are always C<undef> and C<''>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The copy constructor is called only before a call to a function
|
||
|
|
declared to implement a mutator, for example, if C<++$b;> in the
|
||
|
|
code above is effected via a method declared for key C<'++'>
|
||
|
|
(or 'nomethod', passed C<'++'> as the fourth argument) or, by
|
||
|
|
autogeneration, C<'+='>.
|
||
|
|
It is not called if the increment operation is effected by a call
|
||
|
|
to the method for C<'+'> since, in the equivalent code,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a = $b;
|
||
|
|
$b = $b + 1;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
the data referred to by C<$a> is unchanged by the assignment to
|
||
|
|
C<$b> of a reference to new object data.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The copy constructor is not called if Perl determines that it is
|
||
|
|
unnecessary because there is no other reference to the data being
|
||
|
|
modified.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If C<'fallback'> is undefined or TRUE then a copy constructor
|
||
|
|
can be autogenerated, but only for objects based on scalars.
|
||
|
|
In other cases it needs to be defined explicitly.
|
||
|
|
Where an object's data is stored as, for example, an array of
|
||
|
|
scalars, the following might be appropriate:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload '=' => sub { bless [ @{$_[0]} ] }, # ...
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If C<'fallback'> is TRUE and no copy constructor is defined then,
|
||
|
|
for objects not based on scalars, Perl may silently fall back on
|
||
|
|
simple assignment - that is, assignment of the object reference.
|
||
|
|
In effect, this disables the copy constructor mechanism since
|
||
|
|
no new copy of the object data is created.
|
||
|
|
This is almost certainly not what you want.
|
||
|
|
(It is, however, consistent: for example, Perl's fallback for the
|
||
|
|
C<++> operator is to increment the reference itself.)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 How Perl Chooses an Operator Implementation
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Which is checked first, C<nomethod> or C<fallback>?
|
||
|
|
If the two operands of an operator are of different types and
|
||
|
|
both overload the operator, which implementation is used?
|
||
|
|
The following are the precedence rules:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 1.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If the first operand has declared a subroutine to overload the
|
||
|
|
operator then use that implementation.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 2.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Otherwise, if fallback is TRUE or undefined for the
|
||
|
|
first operand then see if the
|
||
|
|
L<rules for autogeneration|"Magic Autogeneration">
|
||
|
|
allows another of its operators to be used instead.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 3.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Unless the operator is an assignment (C<+=>, C<-=>, etc.),
|
||
|
|
repeat step (1) in respect of the second operand.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 4.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Repeat Step (2) in respect of the second operand.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 5.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If the first operand has a "nomethod" method then use that.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 6.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If the second operand has a "nomethod" method then use that.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 7.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If C<fallback> is TRUE for both operands
|
||
|
|
then perform the usual operation for the operator,
|
||
|
|
treating the operands as numbers, strings, or booleans
|
||
|
|
as appropriate for the operator (see note).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item 8.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Nothing worked - die.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Where there is only one operand (or only one operand with
|
||
|
|
overloading) the checks in respect of the other operand above are
|
||
|
|
skipped.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
There are exceptions to the above rules for dereference operations
|
||
|
|
(which, if Step 1 fails, always fall back to the normal, built-in
|
||
|
|
implementations - see Dereferencing), and for C<~~> (which has its
|
||
|
|
own set of rules - see L<Matching>).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note on Step 7: some operators have a different semantic depending
|
||
|
|
on the type of their operands.
|
||
|
|
As there is no way to instruct Perl to treat the operands as, e.g.,
|
||
|
|
numbers instead of strings, the result here may not be what you
|
||
|
|
expect.
|
||
|
|
See L<BUGS AND PITFALLS>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Losing Overloading
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The restriction for the comparison operation is that even if, for example,
|
||
|
|
`C<cmp>' should return a blessed reference, the autogenerated `C<lt>'
|
||
|
|
function will produce only a standard logical value based on the
|
||
|
|
numerical value of the result of `C<cmp>'. In particular, a working
|
||
|
|
numeric conversion is needed in this case (possibly expressed in terms of
|
||
|
|
other conversions).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Similarly, C<.=> and C<x=> operators lose their mathemagical properties
|
||
|
|
if the string conversion substitution is applied.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
When you chop() a mathemagical object it is promoted to a string and its
|
||
|
|
mathemagical properties are lost. The same can happen with other
|
||
|
|
operations as well.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Inheritance and Overloading
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Overloading respects inheritance via the @ISA hierarchy.
|
||
|
|
Inheritance interacts with overloading in two ways.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item Method names in the C<use overload> directive
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If C<value> in
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload key => value;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
is a string, it is interpreted as a method name - which may
|
||
|
|
(in the usual way) be inherited from another class.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item Overloading of an operation is inherited by derived classes
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Any class derived from an overloaded class is also overloaded
|
||
|
|
and inherits its operator implementations.
|
||
|
|
If the same operator is overloaded in more than one ancestor
|
||
|
|
then the implementation is determined by the usual inheritance
|
||
|
|
rules.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
For example, if C<A> inherits from C<B> and C<C> (in that order),
|
||
|
|
C<B> overloads C<+> with C<\&D::plus_sub>, and C<C> overloads
|
||
|
|
C<+> by C<"plus_meth">, then the subroutine C<D::plus_sub> will
|
||
|
|
be called to implement operation C<+> for an object in package C<A>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note that since the value of the C<fallback> key is not a subroutine,
|
||
|
|
its inheritance is not governed by the above rules. In the current
|
||
|
|
implementation, the value of C<fallback> in the first overloaded
|
||
|
|
ancestor is used, but this is accidental and subject to change.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Run-time Overloading
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Since all C<use> directives are executed at compile-time, the only way to
|
||
|
|
change overloading during run-time is to
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
eval 'use overload "+" => \&addmethod';
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
You can also use
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
eval 'no overload "+", "--", "<="';
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
though the use of these constructs during run-time is questionable.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Public Functions
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Package C<overload.pm> provides the following public functions:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over 5
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item overload::StrVal(arg)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Gives string value of C<arg> as in absence of stringify overloading. If you
|
||
|
|
are using this to get the address of a reference (useful for checking if two
|
||
|
|
references point to the same thing) then you may be better off using
|
||
|
|
C<Scalar::Util::refaddr()>, which is faster.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item overload::Overloaded(arg)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Returns true if C<arg> is subject to overloading of some operations.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item overload::Method(obj,op)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Returns C<undef> or a reference to the method that implements C<op>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Overloading Constants
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
For some applications, the Perl parser mangles constants too much.
|
||
|
|
It is possible to hook into this process via C<overload::constant()>
|
||
|
|
and C<overload::remove_constant()> functions.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
These functions take a hash as an argument. The recognized keys of this hash
|
||
|
|
are:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over 8
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item integer
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to overload integer constants,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item float
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to overload floating point constants,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item binary
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to overload octal and hexadecimal constants,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item q
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to overload C<q>-quoted strings, constant pieces of C<qq>- and C<qx>-quoted
|
||
|
|
strings and here-documents,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item qr
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to overload constant pieces of regular expressions.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The corresponding values are references to functions which take three arguments:
|
||
|
|
the first one is the I<initial> string form of the constant, the second one
|
||
|
|
is how Perl interprets this constant, the third one is how the constant is used.
|
||
|
|
Note that the initial string form does not
|
||
|
|
contain string delimiters, and has backslashes in backslash-delimiter
|
||
|
|
combinations stripped (thus the value of delimiter is not relevant for
|
||
|
|
processing of this string). The return value of this function is how this
|
||
|
|
constant is going to be interpreted by Perl. The third argument is undefined
|
||
|
|
unless for overloaded C<q>- and C<qr>- constants, it is C<q> in single-quote
|
||
|
|
context (comes from strings, regular expressions, and single-quote HERE
|
||
|
|
documents), it is C<tr> for arguments of C<tr>/C<y> operators,
|
||
|
|
it is C<s> for right-hand side of C<s>-operator, and it is C<qq> otherwise.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Since an expression C<"ab$cd,,"> is just a shortcut for C<'ab' . $cd . ',,'>,
|
||
|
|
it is expected that overloaded constant strings are equipped with reasonable
|
||
|
|
overloaded catenation operator, otherwise absurd results will result.
|
||
|
|
Similarly, negative numbers are considered as negations of positive constants.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note that it is probably meaningless to call the functions overload::constant()
|
||
|
|
and overload::remove_constant() from anywhere but import() and unimport() methods.
|
||
|
|
From these methods they may be called as
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub import {
|
||
|
|
shift;
|
||
|
|
return unless @_;
|
||
|
|
die "unknown import: @_" unless @_ == 1 and $_[0] eq ':constant';
|
||
|
|
overload::constant integer => sub {Math::BigInt->new(shift)};
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 IMPLEMENTATION
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
What follows is subject to change RSN.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The table of methods for all operations is cached in magic for the
|
||
|
|
symbol table hash for the package. The cache is invalidated during
|
||
|
|
processing of C<use overload>, C<no overload>, new function
|
||
|
|
definitions, and changes in @ISA. However, this invalidation remains
|
||
|
|
unprocessed until the next C<bless>ing into the package. Hence if you
|
||
|
|
want to change overloading structure dynamically, you'll need an
|
||
|
|
additional (fake) C<bless>ing to update the table.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(Every SVish thing has a magic queue, and magic is an entry in that
|
||
|
|
queue. This is how a single variable may participate in multiple
|
||
|
|
forms of magic simultaneously. For instance, environment variables
|
||
|
|
regularly have two forms at once: their %ENV magic and their taint
|
||
|
|
magic. However, the magic which implements overloading is applied to
|
||
|
|
the stashes, which are rarely used directly, thus should not slow down
|
||
|
|
Perl.)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If an object belongs to a package using overload, it carries a special
|
||
|
|
flag. Thus the only speed penalty during arithmetic operations without
|
||
|
|
overloading is the checking of this flag.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
In fact, if C<use overload> is not present, there is almost no overhead
|
||
|
|
for overloadable operations, so most programs should not suffer
|
||
|
|
measurable performance penalties. A considerable effort was made to
|
||
|
|
minimize the overhead when overload is used in some package, but the
|
||
|
|
arguments in question do not belong to packages using overload. When
|
||
|
|
in doubt, test your speed with C<use overload> and without it. So far
|
||
|
|
there have been no reports of substantial speed degradation if Perl is
|
||
|
|
compiled with optimization turned on.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
There is no size penalty for data if overload is not used. The only
|
||
|
|
size penalty if overload is used in some package is that I<all> the
|
||
|
|
packages acquire a magic during the next C<bless>ing into the
|
||
|
|
package. This magic is three-words-long for packages without
|
||
|
|
overloading, and carries the cache table if the package is overloaded.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
It is expected that arguments to methods that are not explicitly supposed
|
||
|
|
to be changed are constant (but this is not enforced).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 COOKBOOK
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Please add examples to what follows!
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Two-face Scalars
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Put this in F<two_face.pm> in your Perl library directory:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package two_face; # Scalars with separate string and
|
||
|
|
# numeric values.
|
||
|
|
sub new { my $p = shift; bless [@_], $p }
|
||
|
|
use overload '""' => \&str, '0+' => \&num, fallback => 1;
|
||
|
|
sub num {shift->[1]}
|
||
|
|
sub str {shift->[0]}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Use it as follows:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
require two_face;
|
||
|
|
my $seven = two_face->new("vii", 7);
|
||
|
|
printf "seven=$seven, seven=%d, eight=%d\n", $seven, $seven+1;
|
||
|
|
print "seven contains `i'\n" if $seven =~ /i/;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(The second line creates a scalar which has both a string value, and a
|
||
|
|
numeric value.) This prints:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
seven=vii, seven=7, eight=8
|
||
|
|
seven contains `i'
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Two-face References
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Suppose you want to create an object which is accessible as both an
|
||
|
|
array reference and a hash reference.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package two_refs;
|
||
|
|
use overload '%{}' => \&gethash, '@{}' => sub { $ {shift()} };
|
||
|
|
sub new {
|
||
|
|
my $p = shift;
|
||
|
|
bless \ [@_], $p;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
sub gethash {
|
||
|
|
my %h;
|
||
|
|
my $self = shift;
|
||
|
|
tie %h, ref $self, $self;
|
||
|
|
\%h;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub TIEHASH { my $p = shift; bless \ shift, $p }
|
||
|
|
my %fields;
|
||
|
|
my $i = 0;
|
||
|
|
$fields{$_} = $i++ foreach qw{zero one two three};
|
||
|
|
sub STORE {
|
||
|
|
my $self = ${shift()};
|
||
|
|
my $key = $fields{shift()};
|
||
|
|
defined $key or die "Out of band access";
|
||
|
|
$$self->[$key] = shift;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
sub FETCH {
|
||
|
|
my $self = ${shift()};
|
||
|
|
my $key = $fields{shift()};
|
||
|
|
defined $key or die "Out of band access";
|
||
|
|
$$self->[$key];
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now one can access an object using both the array and hash syntax:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my $bar = two_refs->new(3,4,5,6);
|
||
|
|
$bar->[2] = 11;
|
||
|
|
$bar->{two} == 11 or die 'bad hash fetch';
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note several important features of this example. First of all, the
|
||
|
|
I<actual> type of $bar is a scalar reference, and we do not overload
|
||
|
|
the scalar dereference. Thus we can get the I<actual> non-overloaded
|
||
|
|
contents of $bar by just using C<$$bar> (what we do in functions which
|
||
|
|
overload dereference). Similarly, the object returned by the
|
||
|
|
TIEHASH() method is a scalar reference.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Second, we create a new tied hash each time the hash syntax is used.
|
||
|
|
This allows us not to worry about a possibility of a reference loop,
|
||
|
|
which would lead to a memory leak.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Both these problems can be cured. Say, if we want to overload hash
|
||
|
|
dereference on a reference to an object which is I<implemented> as a
|
||
|
|
hash itself, the only problem one has to circumvent is how to access
|
||
|
|
this I<actual> hash (as opposed to the I<virtual> hash exhibited by the
|
||
|
|
overloaded dereference operator). Here is one possible fetching routine:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub access_hash {
|
||
|
|
my ($self, $key) = (shift, shift);
|
||
|
|
my $class = ref $self;
|
||
|
|
bless $self, 'overload::dummy'; # Disable overloading of %{}
|
||
|
|
my $out = $self->{$key};
|
||
|
|
bless $self, $class; # Restore overloading
|
||
|
|
$out;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To remove creation of the tied hash on each access, one may an extra
|
||
|
|
level of indirection which allows a non-circular structure of references:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package two_refs1;
|
||
|
|
use overload '%{}' => sub { ${shift()}->[1] },
|
||
|
|
'@{}' => sub { ${shift()}->[0] };
|
||
|
|
sub new {
|
||
|
|
my $p = shift;
|
||
|
|
my $a = [@_];
|
||
|
|
my %h;
|
||
|
|
tie %h, $p, $a;
|
||
|
|
bless \ [$a, \%h], $p;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
sub gethash {
|
||
|
|
my %h;
|
||
|
|
my $self = shift;
|
||
|
|
tie %h, ref $self, $self;
|
||
|
|
\%h;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub TIEHASH { my $p = shift; bless \ shift, $p }
|
||
|
|
my %fields;
|
||
|
|
my $i = 0;
|
||
|
|
$fields{$_} = $i++ foreach qw{zero one two three};
|
||
|
|
sub STORE {
|
||
|
|
my $a = ${shift()};
|
||
|
|
my $key = $fields{shift()};
|
||
|
|
defined $key or die "Out of band access";
|
||
|
|
$a->[$key] = shift;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
sub FETCH {
|
||
|
|
my $a = ${shift()};
|
||
|
|
my $key = $fields{shift()};
|
||
|
|
defined $key or die "Out of band access";
|
||
|
|
$a->[$key];
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now if $baz is overloaded like this, then C<$baz> is a reference to a
|
||
|
|
reference to the intermediate array, which keeps a reference to an
|
||
|
|
actual array, and the access hash. The tie()ing object for the access
|
||
|
|
hash is a reference to a reference to the actual array, so
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
There are no loops of references.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Both "objects" which are blessed into the class C<two_refs1> are
|
||
|
|
references to a reference to an array, thus references to a I<scalar>.
|
||
|
|
Thus the accessor expression C<$$foo-E<gt>[$ind]> involves no
|
||
|
|
overloaded operations.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 Symbolic Calculator
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Put this in F<symbolic.pm> in your Perl library directory:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package symbolic; # Primitive symbolic calculator
|
||
|
|
use overload nomethod => \&wrap;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub new { shift; bless ['n', @_] }
|
||
|
|
sub wrap {
|
||
|
|
my ($obj, $other, $inv, $meth) = @_;
|
||
|
|
($obj, $other) = ($other, $obj) if $inv;
|
||
|
|
bless [$meth, $obj, $other];
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
This module is very unusual as overloaded modules go: it does not
|
||
|
|
provide any usual overloaded operators, instead it provides an
|
||
|
|
implementation for L<C<nomethod>>. In this example the C<nomethod>
|
||
|
|
subroutine returns an object which encapsulates operations done over
|
||
|
|
the objects: C<< symbolic->new(3) >> contains C<['n', 3]>, C<< 2 +
|
||
|
|
symbolic->new(3) >> contains C<['+', 2, ['n', 3]]>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Here is an example of the script which "calculates" the side of
|
||
|
|
circumscribed octagon using the above package:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
require symbolic;
|
||
|
|
my $iter = 1; # 2**($iter+2) = 8
|
||
|
|
my $side = symbolic->new(1);
|
||
|
|
my $cnt = $iter;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
while ($cnt--) {
|
||
|
|
$side = (sqrt(1 + $side**2) - 1)/$side;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
print "OK\n";
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The value of $side is
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
['/', ['-', ['sqrt', ['+', 1, ['**', ['n', 1], 2]],
|
||
|
|
undef], 1], ['n', 1]]
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Note that while we obtained this value using a nice little script,
|
||
|
|
there is no simple way to I<use> this value. In fact this value may
|
||
|
|
be inspected in debugger (see L<perldebug>), but only if
|
||
|
|
C<bareStringify> B<O>ption is set, and not via C<p> command.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If one attempts to print this value, then the overloaded operator
|
||
|
|
C<""> will be called, which will call C<nomethod> operator. The
|
||
|
|
result of this operator will be stringified again, but this result is
|
||
|
|
again of type C<symbolic>, which will lead to an infinite loop.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Add a pretty-printer method to the module F<symbolic.pm>:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub pretty {
|
||
|
|
my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift};
|
||
|
|
$a = 'u' unless defined $a;
|
||
|
|
$b = 'u' unless defined $b;
|
||
|
|
$a = $a->pretty if ref $a;
|
||
|
|
$b = $b->pretty if ref $b;
|
||
|
|
"[$meth $a $b]";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now one can finish the script by
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
print "side = ", $side->pretty, "\n";
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The method C<pretty> is doing object-to-string conversion, so it
|
||
|
|
is natural to overload the operator C<""> using this method. However,
|
||
|
|
inside such a method it is not necessary to pretty-print the
|
||
|
|
I<components> $a and $b of an object. In the above subroutine
|
||
|
|
C<"[$meth $a $b]"> is a catenation of some strings and components $a
|
||
|
|
and $b. If these components use overloading, the catenation operator
|
||
|
|
will look for an overloaded operator C<.>; if not present, it will
|
||
|
|
look for an overloaded operator C<"">. Thus it is enough to use
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload nomethod => \&wrap, '""' => \&str;
|
||
|
|
sub str {
|
||
|
|
my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift};
|
||
|
|
$a = 'u' unless defined $a;
|
||
|
|
$b = 'u' unless defined $b;
|
||
|
|
"[$meth $a $b]";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now one can change the last line of the script to
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
print "side = $side\n";
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
which outputs
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
side = [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1 u] 2]] u] 1] [n 1 u]]
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
and one can inspect the value in debugger using all the possible
|
||
|
|
methods.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Something is still amiss: consider the loop variable $cnt of the
|
||
|
|
script. It was a number, not an object. We cannot make this value of
|
||
|
|
type C<symbolic>, since then the loop will not terminate.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Indeed, to terminate the cycle, the $cnt should become false.
|
||
|
|
However, the operator C<bool> for checking falsity is overloaded (this
|
||
|
|
time via overloaded C<"">), and returns a long string, thus any object
|
||
|
|
of type C<symbolic> is true. To overcome this, we need a way to
|
||
|
|
compare an object to 0. In fact, it is easier to write a numeric
|
||
|
|
conversion routine.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Here is the text of F<symbolic.pm> with such a routine added (and
|
||
|
|
slightly modified str()):
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
package symbolic; # Primitive symbolic calculator
|
||
|
|
use overload
|
||
|
|
nomethod => \&wrap, '""' => \&str, '0+' => \#
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub new { shift; bless ['n', @_] }
|
||
|
|
sub wrap {
|
||
|
|
my ($obj, $other, $inv, $meth) = @_;
|
||
|
|
($obj, $other) = ($other, $obj) if $inv;
|
||
|
|
bless [$meth, $obj, $other];
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
sub str {
|
||
|
|
my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift};
|
||
|
|
$a = 'u' unless defined $a;
|
||
|
|
if (defined $b) {
|
||
|
|
"[$meth $a $b]";
|
||
|
|
} else {
|
||
|
|
"[$meth $a]";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
my %subr = ( n => sub {$_[0]},
|
||
|
|
sqrt => sub {sqrt $_[0]},
|
||
|
|
'-' => sub {shift() - shift()},
|
||
|
|
'+' => sub {shift() + shift()},
|
||
|
|
'/' => sub {shift() / shift()},
|
||
|
|
'*' => sub {shift() * shift()},
|
||
|
|
'**' => sub {shift() ** shift()},
|
||
|
|
);
|
||
|
|
sub num {
|
||
|
|
my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift};
|
||
|
|
my $subr = $subr{$meth}
|
||
|
|
or die "Do not know how to ($meth) in symbolic";
|
||
|
|
$a = $a->num if ref $a eq __PACKAGE__;
|
||
|
|
$b = $b->num if ref $b eq __PACKAGE__;
|
||
|
|
$subr->($a,$b);
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
All the work of numeric conversion is done in %subr and num(). Of
|
||
|
|
course, %subr is not complete, it contains only operators used in the
|
||
|
|
example below. Here is the extra-credit question: why do we need an
|
||
|
|
explicit recursion in num()? (Answer is at the end of this section.)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Use this module like this:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
require symbolic;
|
||
|
|
my $iter = symbolic->new(2); # 16-gon
|
||
|
|
my $side = symbolic->new(1);
|
||
|
|
my $cnt = $iter;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
while ($cnt) {
|
||
|
|
$cnt = $cnt - 1; # Mutator `--' not implemented
|
||
|
|
$side = (sqrt(1 + $side**2) - 1)/$side;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
printf "%s=%f\n", $side, $side;
|
||
|
|
printf "pi=%f\n", $side*(2**($iter+2));
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
It prints (without so many line breaks)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
[/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1] 2]]] 1]
|
||
|
|
[n 1]] 2]]] 1]
|
||
|
|
[/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1] 2]]] 1] [n 1]]]=0.198912
|
||
|
|
pi=3.182598
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The above module is very primitive. It does not implement
|
||
|
|
mutator methods (C<++>, C<-=> and so on), does not do deep copying
|
||
|
|
(not required without mutators!), and implements only those arithmetic
|
||
|
|
operations which are used in the example.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To implement most arithmetic operations is easy; one should just use
|
||
|
|
the tables of operations, and change the code which fills %subr to
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my %subr = ( 'n' => sub {$_[0]} );
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", $overload::ops{with_assign}) {
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = $subr{"$op="} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
my @bins = qw(binary 3way_comparison num_comparison str_comparison);
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{ @bins }") {
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{qw(unary func)}") {
|
||
|
|
print "defining `$op'\n";
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = eval "sub {$op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Since subroutines implementing assignment operators are not required
|
||
|
|
to modify their operands (see L<Overloadable Operations> above),
|
||
|
|
we do not need anything special to make C<+=> and friends work,
|
||
|
|
besides adding these operators to %subr and defining a copy
|
||
|
|
constructor (needed since Perl has no way to know that the
|
||
|
|
implementation of C<'+='> does not mutate the argument -
|
||
|
|
see L<Copy Constructor>).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To implement a copy constructor, add C<< '=' => \&cpy >> to C<use overload>
|
||
|
|
line, and code (this code assumes that mutators change things one level
|
||
|
|
deep only, so recursive copying is not needed):
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub cpy {
|
||
|
|
my $self = shift;
|
||
|
|
bless [@$self], ref $self;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To make C<++> and C<--> work, we need to implement actual mutators,
|
||
|
|
either directly, or in C<nomethod>. We continue to do things inside
|
||
|
|
C<nomethod>, thus add
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
if ($meth eq '++' or $meth eq '--') {
|
||
|
|
@$obj = ($meth, (bless [@$obj]), 1); # Avoid circular reference
|
||
|
|
return $obj;
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
after the first line of wrap(). This is not a most effective
|
||
|
|
implementation, one may consider
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub inc { $_[0] = bless ['++', shift, 1]; }
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
instead.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
As a final remark, note that one can fill %subr by
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my %subr = ( 'n' => sub {$_[0]} );
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", $overload::ops{with_assign}) {
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = $subr{"$op="} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
my @bins = qw(binary 3way_comparison num_comparison str_comparison);
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{ @bins }") {
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{qw(unary func)}") {
|
||
|
|
$subr{$op} = eval "sub {$op shift()}";
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
$subr{'++'} = $subr{'+'};
|
||
|
|
$subr{'--'} = $subr{'-'};
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
This finishes implementation of a primitive symbolic calculator in
|
||
|
|
50 lines of Perl code. Since the numeric values of subexpressions
|
||
|
|
are not cached, the calculator is very slow.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Here is the answer for the exercise: In the case of str(), we need no
|
||
|
|
explicit recursion since the overloaded C<.>-operator will fall back
|
||
|
|
to an existing overloaded operator C<"">. Overloaded arithmetic
|
||
|
|
operators I<do not> fall back to numeric conversion if C<fallback> is
|
||
|
|
not explicitly requested. Thus without an explicit recursion num()
|
||
|
|
would convert C<['+', $a, $b]> to C<$a + $b>, which would just rebuild
|
||
|
|
the argument of num().
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
If you wonder why defaults for conversion are different for str() and
|
||
|
|
num(), note how easy it was to write the symbolic calculator. This
|
||
|
|
simplicity is due to an appropriate choice of defaults. One extra
|
||
|
|
note: due to the explicit recursion num() is more fragile than sym():
|
||
|
|
we need to explicitly check for the type of $a and $b. If components
|
||
|
|
$a and $b happen to be of some related type, this may lead to problems.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head2 I<Really> Symbolic Calculator
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
One may wonder why we call the above calculator symbolic. The reason
|
||
|
|
is that the actual calculation of the value of expression is postponed
|
||
|
|
until the value is I<used>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To see it in action, add a method
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub STORE {
|
||
|
|
my $obj = shift;
|
||
|
|
$#$obj = 1;
|
||
|
|
@$obj->[0,1] = ('=', shift);
|
||
|
|
}
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
to the package C<symbolic>. After this change one can do
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my $a = symbolic->new(3);
|
||
|
|
my $b = symbolic->new(4);
|
||
|
|
my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
and the numeric value of $c becomes 5. However, after calling
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a->STORE(12); $b->STORE(5);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
the numeric value of $c becomes 13. There is no doubt now that the module
|
||
|
|
symbolic provides a I<symbolic> calculator indeed.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
To hide the rough edges under the hood, provide a tie()d interface to the
|
||
|
|
package C<symbolic>. Add methods
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub TIESCALAR { my $pack = shift; $pack->new(@_) }
|
||
|
|
sub FETCH { shift }
|
||
|
|
sub nop { } # Around a bug
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(the bug, fixed in Perl 5.14, is described in L<"BUGS">). One can use this
|
||
|
|
new interface as
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
tie $a, 'symbolic', 3;
|
||
|
|
tie $b, 'symbolic', 4;
|
||
|
|
$a->nop; $b->nop; # Around a bug
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now numeric value of $c is 5. After C<$a = 12; $b = 5> the numeric value
|
||
|
|
of $c becomes 13. To insulate the user of the module add a method
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
sub vars { my $p = shift; tie($_, $p), $_->nop foreach @_; }
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Now
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my ($a, $b);
|
||
|
|
symbolic->vars($a, $b);
|
||
|
|
my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a = 3; $b = 4;
|
||
|
|
printf "c5 %s=%f\n", $c, $c;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$a = 12; $b = 5;
|
||
|
|
printf "c13 %s=%f\n", $c, $c;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
shows that the numeric value of $c follows changes to the values of $a
|
||
|
|
and $b.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 AUTHOR
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Ilya Zakharevich E<lt>F<ilya@math.mps.ohio-state.edu>E<gt>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 SEE ALSO
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The C<overloading> pragma can be used to enable or disable overloaded
|
||
|
|
operations within a lexical scope - see L<overloading>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 DIAGNOSTICS
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
When Perl is run with the B<-Do> switch or its equivalent, overloading
|
||
|
|
induces diagnostic messages.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Using the C<m> command of Perl debugger (see L<perldebug>) one can
|
||
|
|
deduce which operations are overloaded (and which ancestor triggers
|
||
|
|
this overloading). Say, if C<eq> is overloaded, then the method C<(eq>
|
||
|
|
is shown by debugger. The method C<()> corresponds to the C<fallback>
|
||
|
|
key (in fact a presence of this method shows that this package has
|
||
|
|
overloading enabled, and it is what is used by the C<Overloaded>
|
||
|
|
function of module C<overload>).
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The module might issue the following warnings:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over 4
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item Odd number of arguments for overload::constant
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(W) The call to overload::constant contained an odd number of arguments.
|
||
|
|
The arguments should come in pairs.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item `%s' is not an overloadable type
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(W) You tried to overload a constant type the overload package is unaware of.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item `%s' is not a code reference
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(W) The second (fourth, sixth, ...) argument of overload::constant needs
|
||
|
|
to be a code reference. Either an anonymous subroutine, or a reference
|
||
|
|
to a subroutine.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=head1 BUGS AND PITFALLS
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=over
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
No warning is issued for invalid C<use overload> keys.
|
||
|
|
Such errors are not always obvious:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload "+0" => sub { ...; }, # should be "0+"
|
||
|
|
"not" => sub { ...; }; # should be "!"
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
(Bug #74098)
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
A pitfall when fallback is TRUE and Perl resorts to a built-in
|
||
|
|
implementation of an operator is that some operators have more
|
||
|
|
than one semantic, for example C<|>:
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload '0+' => sub { $_[0]->{n}; },
|
||
|
|
fallback => 1;
|
||
|
|
my $x = bless { n => 4 }, "main";
|
||
|
|
my $y = bless { n => 8 }, "main";
|
||
|
|
print $x | $y, "\n";
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
You might expect this to output "12".
|
||
|
|
In fact, it prints "<": the ASCII result of treating "|"
|
||
|
|
as a bitwise string operator - that is, the result of treating
|
||
|
|
the operands as the strings "4" and "8" rather than numbers.
|
||
|
|
The fact that numify (C<0+>) is implemented but stringify
|
||
|
|
(C<"">) isn't makes no difference since the latter is simply
|
||
|
|
autogenerated from the former.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
The only way to change this is to provide your own subroutine
|
||
|
|
for C<'|'>.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Magic autogeneration increases the potential for inadvertently
|
||
|
|
creating self-referential structures.
|
||
|
|
Currently Perl will not free self-referential
|
||
|
|
structures until cycles are explicitly broken.
|
||
|
|
For example,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
use overload '+' => 'add';
|
||
|
|
sub add { bless [ \$_[0], \$_[1] ] };
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
is asking for trouble, since
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$obj += $y;
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
will effectively become
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$obj = add($obj, $y, undef);
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
with the same result as
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
$obj = [\$obj, \$foo];
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Even if no I<explicit> assignment-variants of operators are present in
|
||
|
|
the script, they may be generated by the optimizer.
|
||
|
|
For example,
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
"obj = $obj\n"
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
may be optimized to
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
my $tmp = 'obj = ' . $obj; $tmp .= "\n";
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Because it is used for overloading, the per-package hash
|
||
|
|
C<%OVERLOAD> now has a special meaning in Perl.
|
||
|
|
The symbol table is filled with names looking like line-noise.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
For the purpose of inheritance every overloaded package behaves as if
|
||
|
|
C<fallback> is present (possibly undefined). This may create
|
||
|
|
interesting effects if some package is not overloaded, but inherits
|
||
|
|
from two overloaded packages.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Before Perl 5.14, the relation between overloading and tie()ing was broken.
|
||
|
|
Overloading is triggered or not basing on the I<previous> class of the
|
||
|
|
tie()d variable.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
This happened because the presence of overloading was checked
|
||
|
|
too early, before any tie()d access was attempted. If the
|
||
|
|
class of the value FETCH()ed from the tied variable does not
|
||
|
|
change, a simple workaround for code that is to run on older Perl
|
||
|
|
versions is to access the value (via C<() = $foo> or some such)
|
||
|
|
immediately after tie()ing, so that after this call the I<previous> class
|
||
|
|
coincides with the current one.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=item *
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
Barewords are not covered by overloaded string constants.
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=back
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
=cut
|
||
|
|
|